The Fall of Old Chosŏn: The Han Dynasty Conquest
Between 109 and 108 BCE, a pivotal shift in East Asian history occurred as the Han dynasty launched a massive military campaign against Wiman Chosŏn (also known as Old Chosŏn). This conflict, initiated by Emperor Wu, would fundamentally reshape the political landscape of the northern Korean Peninsula and the Liaodong Peninsula.
The war resulted in the total collapse of the Wiman Chosŏn kingdom and the subsequent establishment of the Four Commanderies of Han, marking a significant era of Chinese administrative presence in the region.
![Han dynasty destroys Wiman Chosŏn, establishing Four Commanderies of Han in northern Korean Peninsula[2][not specific enough to verify]](/images/9e/26/9e268abc7faa4413bab9a2d1ef91415be3576e73851f4bc369924c47332e8e3a.png)
Key Facts
- Conflict Period: 109–108 BCE
- Primary Belligerents: Han dynasty vs. Wiman Chosŏn
- Key Han Leaders: Yang Pu and Xun Zhi
- Key Chosŏn Leaders: King Ugŏ
- Major Outcome: Han victory and the creation of four administrative commanderies
- Historical Impact: Led to the Proto-Three Kingdoms period of Korea
Historical Background: The Rise of Wiman
The origins of the conflict can be traced back to 195 BCE, when a general named Wi Man (or Wei Man) fled the vassal kingdom of Yan after a failed rebellion against the Han dynasty. Seeking refuge in the eastern kingdom of Gojoseon, Wi Man and a thousand followers adopted local Korean dress and gradually built a massive following of both native Koreans and Chinese refugees.
Through this growing influence, Wi Man eventually usurped the throne from King Jun, who fled south to Jin. The governor of Liaodong eventually recognized Wi Man as a foreign vassal of the Han, tasking him with guarding the borders against "barbarian" intrusions and managing tribute for the Han emperor.
The Spark of War
Tensions escalated under Wi Man's grandson, King Ugŏ. Relations soured due to several geopolitical factors:
- Diplomatic Friction: King Ugŏ interrupted direct contact between Korean tribal chieftains and the Han court.
- The Envoy Incident: After a failed diplomatic mission by the Han envoy She He, King Ugŏ executed a Han envoy, providing the direct pretext for war.
- Trade Interference: Wiman Chosŏn had begun preventing trade between the Han dynasty and other regional polities, such as Jinbeon.
- Security Concerns: The Han feared a potential alliance between Gojoseon and the Xiongnu (a powerful nomadic confederation).
The Course of the Military Campaign
In 109 BCE, Emperor Wu launched a two-pronged invasion. Yang Pu led a naval force of over 50,000 men across the Bohai Sea from Qi, while Xun Zhi led a land army through Liaodong toward the capital, Wanggeom-seong.
Early Setbacks and Failed Peace
The campaign initially faced significant difficulties. A Han vanguard force led by a commander named Duo suffered a disastrous defeat. This left Yang Pu with only 7,000 men by the time he reached the capital, where he was subsequently routed by King Ugŏ's forces. Meanwhile, Xun Zhi struggled to break the Gojoseon army west of the Yalu River.
Seeking to restore peace, King Ugŏ attempted to send his son and 5,000 horses to the Han court as a peace offering. However, the attempt failed when the prince, fearing a trap by Xun Zhi, retreated back to the capital, leading to a resumption of hostilities.
The Siege of Wanggeom-seong
The tide turned when Xun Zhi successfully defeated the Gojoseon army, allowing him and Yang Pu to converge on and besiege the capital, Wanggeom-seong. The siege lasted several months and was marked by internal Han friction. A dispute arose between the two generals regarding whether to continue negotiations or launch an all-out assault.
The conflict between the Han commanders escalated when the governor of Jinan, Gongsun Sui, arrived to mediate. In a controversial move, Xun Zhi used his authority to arrest Yang Pu and take command of his entire army. Although Emperor Wu later ordered Gongsun Sui's execution for this betrayal, the unified Han forces were now positioned for a final strike.
The Fall of the Kingdom
As the siege intensified, internal divisions within the Chosŏn leadership emerged. While King Ugŏ remained defiant, several high-ranking officials—including No In, Han Eum, Sam, and Wang Gyeop—opted to surrender. This led to a period of internal violence: Sam reportedly sent assassins to kill King Ugŏ, and the minister Seong Gi was also assassinated.
Ultimately, the people of Wanggeom-seong were convinced to surrender by the sons of King Ugŏ and the official No In. By 108 BCE, the kingdom of Gojoseon had officially fallen.
Aftermath and Historical Legacy
Following the conquest, the Han dynasty established four administrative districts, known as commanderies, to govern the territory: Lelang, Xuantu, Zhenfan, and Lintun. The Lelang commandery, located near modern-day Pyongyang, became the most significant, maintaining control over the region until 313 AD.
The fall of Wiman Chosŏn acted as a catalyst for the Proto-Three Kingdoms period in Korean history. While some Chosŏn nobles were rewarded with titles, the Han commanders faced mixed fates: Xun Zhi was executed for his betrayal of strategy, while Yang Pu was spared execution but reduced to the status of a commoner after paying a fine.
Summary of the Han-Chosŏn War
| Feature | Wiman Chosŏn | Han Dynasty |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Leaders | King Ugŏ | Yang Pu, Xun Zhi |
| Military Strength | Not specified | 50,000+ |
| Final Result | Defeat and conquest | Victory and territorial expansion |
| Political Outcome | End of the kingdom | Establishment of Four Commanderies |
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the Four Commanderies of Han?
The Four Commanderies were administrative districts established by the Han dynasty to govern conquered territories in the northern Korean Peninsula. They were Lelang, Xuantu, Zhenfan, and Lintun.
Why did the Han dynasty invade Wiman Chosŏn?
The invasion was triggered by several factors, including the execution of a Han envoy by King Ugŏ, the interruption of trade between the Han and other regional states, and the fear that Chosŏn might ally with the Xiongnu.
Who was Wi Man?
Wi Man was a former general from the state of Yan who sought refuge in Gojoseon. He eventually usurped the throne from King Jun and established the Wiman Chosŏn kingdom.
How did the war end for the Chosŏn leadership?
The war ended with the fall of the capital, Wanggeom-seong. The leadership was fractured by assassinations and surrenders; some officials surrendered to the Han, while others, including King Ugŏ, were killed.
What was the long-term impact of this conquest?
The conquest led to the establishment of Chinese administrative presence in the region and paved the way for the Proto-Three Kingdoms period in Korean history.