Racial Quotas and Segregation Systems Through History
Throughout human history, nations have implemented various systems to organize populations based on race, ethnicity, and national origin. These mechanisms range from rigid social hierarchies and segregation laws designed to exclude specific groups to modern affirmative action policies intended to rectify historical imbalances. By examining these systems across different eras and continents, we can see how governments have used quotas and classifications to shape the social and economic landscape of their societies.
Key Facts
- Ancient Mongolia: The Yuan dynasty utilized a four-class hierarchy to determine reliability and social standing.
- Ancient China: The Tang dynasty enforced racial segregation and banned intermarriage between Chinese citizens and foreigners.
- Brazil: Modern policies have fluctuated between implementing racial quotas for university access and legislative attempts to abolish them.
- United States: Immigration was historically restricted by the National Origins Formula, while later decades saw a shift toward employment and education quotas.
- South Africa: The Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) system links government tender eligibility to black ownership and management quotas.
Ancient Systems of Classification and Segregation
The Yuan Dynasty's Four-Class System
During the Yuan dynasty, the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan established a hierarchy of reliability to organize the population. This four-class system divided people based on their perceived loyalty and origin:
- Mongols: The ruling class who introduced the system to China.
- Semuren: Immigrants from the west and Central Asian clans, including Muslims, Christians, Jews, and Buddhists.
- North Chinese: Including Kitans, Jurchens, and Koreans.
- Southerners: All subjects of the former Song dynasty.
Segregation in the Tang Dynasty
Ancient China also employed laws to separate foreigners from the general population. In 779 AD, an edict forced Uighurs to wear ethnic dress and prohibited them from marrying Chinese citizens. Later, in 836 AD, Governor Lu Chun of Canton enforced strict separation, banning interracial marriages and preventing foreigners from owning property. This law specifically targeted "Dark peoples" or "People of colour," a term that encompassed Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, and Sumatrans.
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Modern Affirmative Action and Quota Systems
Brazil's Educational Quotas
In the 1990s, activism for Black education led to the adoption of affirmative action. In 2001, Rio de Janeiro State Law No. 3,708 reserved 40% of undergraduate places at state universities for those self-identifying as Black or Pardos (people of mixed racial heritage). This was later refined in 2003 to a 20% quota for Black people, with additional spots for ethnic minorities and people with disabilities.
The federal system followed, with a proposal presented in 1999 by Rita Segato and José Jorge de Carvalho, which was implemented in 2004. However, these policies have faced legal challenges. In 2026, the state of Santa Catarina passed Bill 753 to prohibit racial quotas. This law was eventually overturned unanimously by the Supreme Federal Court after a legal challenge filed by the Socialism and Liberty Party, the National Union of Students, and Educafro.
The United States: From Immigration to Employment
Between 1921 and 1965, the U.S. used the National Origins Formula, an immigration quota system designed to maintain the country's existing ethnic composition by restricting immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe.
Following the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the focus shifted toward integration. In the 1970s, Labor Secretary George P. Shultz pushed for quotas to allow Black workers into construction unions. The Supreme Court case Griggs v. Duke Power Company further encouraged companies to implement quotas by ruling that neutral tests resulting in de facto segregation were illegal.
Legal boundaries were later defined by the Supreme Court. In Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), the court ruled that public institutions could not use specific numerical racial targets for admissions, though they could set diversity "goals." Conversely, United Steelworkers v. Weber (1979) allowed private employers to use rigid quotas.
South Africa's Comprehensive Quota Framework
South Africa employs a wide array of quota systems to address historical inequality, often referred to as "Absolute representation" by trade unions.
- Black Economic Empowerment (BEE): A system where companies are scored on black ownership, senior management, and supplier quotas to determine their ability to win government tenders.
- Public Service: The South African Police Service (SAPS) uses quotas for hiring and promotion, sometimes leaving positions vacant if a candidate from the required demographic cannot be found.
- Higher Education: University enrollment is based on racial quotas. At the University of Cape Town, for example, admission requirements for medicine differ by race, with black students requiring a 59% average compared to 78% for white and Indian students.
- Sports: Minister Fikile Mbalula has implemented quota systems across rugby, football, cricket, netball, and athletics.
Global Summary of Racial Quota Applications
| Region/Country | Primary Application | Purpose/Nature | Key Example/Law |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ancient Mongolia | Social Hierarchy | Reliability/Control | Yuan Dynasty Four-Class System |
| Ancient China | Segregation | Exclusion | Tang Dynasty Edicts (779 & 836 AD) |
| Brazil | Education | Affirmative Action | Rio de Janeiro State Law No. 3,708 |
| United States | Immigration/Labor | Composition/Integration | National Origins Formula |
| South Africa | Economy/Education/Sport | Empowerment | Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) |
Frequently Asked Questions
What was the purpose of the National Origins Formula in the US?
The National Origins Formula was an immigration quota system used between 1921 and 1965 to maintain the existing ethnic composition of the United States by restricting immigration based on current population proportions, which specifically limited arrivals from Southern and Eastern Europe.
How does the BEE system work in South Africa?
Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) is a scoring system based on the quota of black ownership, senior management, training, and suppliers within a company. These scores directly impact a company's ability to compete for government tenders.
What happened to the racial quota law in Santa Catarina, Brazil?
Although the state government and Legislative Assembly passed Bill 753 in 2025 to prohibit racial quotas in state institutions, the law was suspended by a preliminary injunction and eventually overturned unanimously by the Supreme Federal Court in April 2026.
How did the Yuan dynasty classify its population?
The Yuan dynasty used a four-class system: Mongols at the top, followed by Semuren (Western/Central Asian immigrants), then North Chinese (including Kitans, Jurchens, and Koreans), and finally Southerners (subjects of the former Song dynasty).
What is the difference between "goals" and "quotas" in US public university admissions?
According to the Supreme Court ruling in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, public universities cannot set specific numerical racial targets (quotas) for admissions, but they are permitted to establish general "goals" and "timetables" to increase diversity.