Political Violence: Types, Actors, and Frameworks
Political violence is a complex phenomenon that varies significantly in form, severity, and practice. In the field of political science, researchers typically organize these occurrences by identifying the actors involved. This framework generally categorizes violence into three primary streams: conflict between non-state actors, one-sided violence perpetrated by a state against civilians, and organized violence between sovereign states.
Scholar Stathis Kalyvas further refines this by identifying eleven specific types of political violence: interstate war, civil war, terrorism, political assassination, military coups, mass protest or rebellion, intercommunal violence, organized crime or cartels, ethnic cleansing, genocide, and state repression.
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Key Facts
- One-sided violence is recorded by the Human Security Report Project when government violence against civilians results in at least 25 deaths in a calendar year.
- Genocide involves the deliberate and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group.
- Terrorism is often used as a tactic by the weaker side of a conflict to coerce governments or societies.
- Civil wars (intrastate wars) occur between organized groups within a single state, often aiming to overthrow the government or seize regional control.
- Interstate war is characterized by organized, prolonged armed conflict between political communities, often resulting in high mortality.
Violence by Non-State Actors
Non-state actors include individuals or groups not formally affiliated with a government. These may include paramilitaries or "thugs-for-hire" who attack politicians or demonstrations. Examples include the Baltagiya in Egypt, Pancasila Youth in Indonesia, Colectivo in Venezuela, the Rubbish Collection Organization in Thailand, and Titushky in Ukraine and Georgia. Some of these groups are suspected of maintaining covert connections to the state.
Ethnic Conflicts
An ethnic conflict is fought between different ethnic groups. While a state may formally or informally back one group or target another, these conflicts can occur independently of state intervention or despite state attempts at mediation.
Terrorism
Terrorism involves violence directed at political targets. The United States Department of Defense defines it as the calculated use of unlawful violence or threats to instill fear, intended to intimidate societies or governments to achieve political, religious, or ideological goals. Because the definition is often contested, states sometimes use the label to demonize enemies while obscuring state-administered violence, as seen in examples like The Troubles or the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.
One-Sided Violence by the State
One-sided violence occurs when an organized armed group connected to a government kills civilians. This category encompasses several severe human rights violations.
Genocide and Torture
Genocide is the systematic destruction of a specific group, often with government support; the Holocaust remains the most cited historical example. Torture—the infliction of severe physical or psychological pain for punishment or confession—is prohibited by international law and Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Despite this, organizations like Amnesty International estimate that at least 81 governments still practice torture.
Capital Punishment and Police Brutality
Capital punishment is the state-sanctioned death sentence for a crime, distinct from extrajudicial killing (killing without legal process). As of 2010, Amnesty International reported 58 countries actively using the death penalty. Additionally, police brutality occurs when officers use excessive force—force beyond what is necessary—against civilians. In 2010, the United States reported 4,861 incidents of police misconduct involving 6,826 victims and 247 fatalities.
Famine
In a political context, famine can be intentionally initiated or prolonged to depopulate a region, compel obedience, or deny resources to a recalcitrant population.
Violence Between States and Non-State Actors
This category involves conflicts where at least one party is a recognized government.
Rebellion, Rioting, and Revolution
A rebellion is an organized uprising against a government, often driven by social, religious, or political grievances. Rioting involves violent disturbances by groups protesting injustice, often manifesting as property damage. According to the frustration-aggression model theory, riots result from a group's frustration with their life circumstances. When these movements lead to a fundamental and sudden change in political power and organization, it is termed a revolution.
Civil War and Counter-Insurgency
A civil war is an intrastate war between organized groups. To combat this, governments employ counter-insurgency: a spectrum of actions designed to quell an insurgency and protect government authority. These operations often struggle to distinguish between active insurgents and non-combatant civilians.
Electoral Violence
Electoral violence consists of coercion or physical harm used to influence election outcomes, disrupt polls, or protest results. It is used when fraud alone is insufficient to secure a victory.
War Between States
Interstate war is an intentional, widespread armed conflict between political communities. These conflicts are typified by extreme aggression and high mortality. For example, World War II resulted in over 60 million deaths. Between 1985 and 1994, it is estimated that an average of 378,000 people died annually due to war.
| Category | Primary Actors | Examples/Forms |
|---|---|---|
| Non-State Actor Violence | Ethnic groups, paramilitaries, terrorists | Ethnic conflict, terrorism, organized crime |
| One-Sided State Violence | Government/State forces vs. Civilians | Genocide, torture, police brutality, famine |
| State vs. Non-State | Government vs. Rebel/Insurgent groups | Civil war, rebellion, revolution, counter-insurgency |
| Interstate Violence | Sovereign State vs. Sovereign State | Interstate war |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between capital punishment and extrajudicial killing?
Capital punishment is a legal sentence of death imposed by the state through a judicial process. Extrajudicial killing is the killing of a person by government authorities without any legal proceeding or judicial sanction.
How is one-sided violence officially measured?
The Human Security Report Project records one-sided violence by governments whenever violence against civilians by a single group results in at least 25 reported deaths within a calendar year.
What distinguishes a riot from a rebellion?
A riot is typically a violent, unpredictable disturbance by a group protesting perceived wrongs, often resulting in property damage. A rebellion is a more consciously coordinated uprising that seeks to gain political control over a state or a portion of it.
Why is the definition of terrorism controversial?
The definition is politically charged because states often use the label to demonize their enemies while ignoring or justifying "legal" violence administered by the state itself.
What is the purpose of counter-insurgency?
Counter-insurgency consists of doctrines and tactics used by a recognized government to contain or eliminate an insurgency, aiming to protect government authority and remove the influence of insurgents.