Mongolians: History, Culture, and Global Distribution

The Mongolians are a Mongolic-speaking people with a legacy that spans from the vast steppes of Central Asia to the creation of the largest contiguous land empire in history. Today, they maintain a distinct cultural identity characterized by a deep connection to their nomadic roots, a complex linguistic heritage, and a presence that extends across Mongolia, China, and Russia.

From the early Proto-Mongol states to the modern era, the history of the Mongol people is one of unification, expansion, and resilience. Their journey reflects a constant interplay between nomadic independence and the influence of surrounding imperial powers.

Asia in 330–555, showing the Rouran Khaganate and its neighbors, including the Tuoba Wei and the Tuyuhun, all of which were established by Proto-Mongols

Key Facts

Analysis of DNA extracted from the remains of Avars found in Hungary has provided evidence that they originated in what is now Mongolia.[48]

Total Population: Approximately 10 million people worldwide.
Primary Regions: China (approx. 6.3 million), Mongolia (approx. 3 million), and Russia (approx. 651,000).
Major Subgroups: Khalkha, Oirats (including Kalmyks), and Buryats.
Languages: Mongolian and other Mongolic languages.
Historical Legacy: Founders of the Mongol Empire and various subsequent Turco-Mongol states.

Historical Evolution

The Mongol Empire and Northern Yuan

The rise of the Mongol Empire marked a turning point in global history, unifying various tribes under a single authority. Following the fragmentation of the empire, the Northern Yuan period saw the emergence of the Khalkha during the reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543). The Khalkha became the dominant clan in Mongolia proper, eventually reunifying the Mongols under the rule of Zasagt Khan (1558–1592).

A portrait of Kublai Khan by Araniko (1245–1306)

Conflict and the Qing Dynasty

The 17th century was marked by internal strife and external pressure. The Dzungar Khanate, led by Galdan Boshugtu Khan, emerged as a major power in Inner Asia. In 1688, Oirat invasions of Khalkha lands forced the Northern Yuan Mongols to seek protection from the Qing dynasty. By May 30, 1691, Mongol princes formally submitted to the Qing emperor.

Control over Inner Mongolia was secured by the Qing by 1635, following the defeat of the Chahar army and the death of the last khan, Ligdan, in 1634. The geopolitical landscape was further complicated by religious divides, with the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) sect supporting the Manchus, while Ligdan supported the Kagyu (Red Hat) sect of Tibetan Buddhism.

Map showing wars between Qing dynasty and Dzungar Khanate

A Dzungar soldier called Ayusi from the high Qing era, by Giuseppe Castiglione, 1755

The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing (that ruled China at the time) and Mongol Dzungar armies. The fall of the Dzungar Khanate

The Path to Independence

In the early 20th century, the Qing government implemented "New Policies" (xinzheng) to encourage Han Chinese settlement on Mongolian lands. This sparked a movement for independence in Outer Mongolia. Following the Xinhai Revolution, the Mongolian Revolution on November 30, 1911, ended over two centuries of Qing rule.

A Mongolian Buddhist noble in Urga, 1913

Khorloogiin Choibalsan, leader of the Mongolian People's Republic (left), and Georgy Zhukov consult during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol against Japanese troops, 1939

Demographics and Geographic Distribution

The Northern Yuan dynasty and Turco-Mongol residual states and domains by the 15th century

The Mongolic people are distributed across several nations, with varying population sizes and subgroup concentrations.

Estimated Population Distribution of Mongolic Peoples (2010-2020)
Region/Country	Approximate Population	Primary Groups
China	6,290,204	Southern Mongols, Oirats, Barga, Buryat
Mongolia	3,046,882	Khalkha, Oirats, various clans
Russia	651,355	Buryats, Kalmyks
South Korea	37,963	Diaspora
Japan	20,416	Diaspora

Major Subgroups

Khalkha: The dominant group in modern Mongolia.
Oirats: Concentrated in Western Mongolia, Xinjiang (China), and Kalmykia (Russia). The Kalmyks are a Western Oirat group residing in Russia.
Buryats: Primarily located in Russia (Siberia) and parts of Mongolia and China.

This map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire and location of today's Mongols in modern Mongolia, Russia, and China.

Buryat shaman of Olkhon, Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia

Culture and Society

Ming dynasty and the Northern Yuan in the early 15th century.

Language and Religion

The people speak Mongolic languages, which are categorized in a chronological linguistic tree. Spiritually, the population has a diverse history. While Tibetan Buddhism (particularly the Gelugpa sect) became dominant, traditional shamanism remains a significant cultural element. In some regions, such as those influenced by Timur, conversion to Islam occurred among certain leaders.

Chronological tree of the Mongolic languages

A Mongolian shaman, photo by Sakari Pälsi, 1909

Self-portrait of Zanabazar, the Buddhist spiritual leader of Mongolia from 1649 until his death in 1723

Lifestyle and Kinship

Traditional Mongolian life is centered around the ger (a portable round tent) and the grazing of livestock. This nomadic lifestyle fostered strong kinship ties and a social structure based on clans and tumens (military/administrative units of 10,000).

Mongols grazing livestock, by Roy Chapman Andrews photographs in 1921

Frequently Asked Questions

A Mongol woman seated for a portrait, 1921

World War II Zaisan Memorial, Ulaanbaatar, from the Mongolian People's Republic era.

Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj (right)

Timur of Mongolic origin himself had converted almost all the Borjigin leaders to Islam.

The Mughal emperor Babur and his heir Humayun. The word Mughal is derived from the Persian word for Mongol.

Buryat archery displayed on a Soviet stamp, 1963

Strong Mongol men at August games. Photo by Wm. Purdom, 1909

A photo of an Oirat caravan taken in the early 20th century

What is the difference between the Khalkha and the Oirats?

The Khalkha are the Eastern Mongolic people who became the dominant group in Mongolia proper, while the Oirats are Western Mongolic peoples who established powers like the Dzungar Khanate and later migrated to form the Kalmyk population in Russia.

How did the Qing dynasty come to rule Mongolia?

The Qing secured Inner Mongolia by 1635. Outer Mongolia (the Khalkha) submitted in 1691 after being pressured by invasions from the Dzungar Khanate, seeking the protection of the Qing emperor.

What are the primary Mongolic groups in Russia?

The two primary Mongolic ethnic groups in Russia are the Buryats, located mainly in Siberia near Lake Baikal, and the Kalmyks, located in the Republic of Kalmykia.

What is a ger?

A ger is a traditional, portable, round tent used by Mongolian nomads, designed to be easily assembled and disassembled to facilitate movement across the steppes for livestock grazing.

When did Outer Mongolia gain independence from China?

The Mongolian Revolution began on November 30, 1911, ending over 200 years of Qing dynasty rule and initiating the process of independence for Outer Mongolia.